Monday, September 30, 2019

Communication Effects on Daily Life

#4: Identify one or two direct ways in which mass media and culture impacted the 2012 national election results. Mass media had a profound impact on the 2012 presidential election. Mass media is one big community that includes a mainstream of media. Some of the biggest components of the mainstream are television, radios, and the Internet. Mass media is one of the most powerful tools used during national elections because it helps influence open-minded voters. Culture also heavily impacts the national election results because the United States is slowly becoming a multicultural society.Racial diversity is something that is so prominent in our lives and therefore it plays a key role in the political system. One direct way in which mass media impacted the election was through attitude influence. Romney and Obama were aware that attitudes could be influenced through the media and both candidates spent over 1 billion dollars during their campaigns, setting a new record. Throughout years a nd months leading up to the election, the campaigns used mass media to spread political support or disdain to thousands of potential voters. The television is one of the most important technologies that have impacted the election.It has remained ahead of other media for the past 8 years. Attitude influence can be shaped through political debates that are shown on TV. Millions of viewers watch television and tune in during the debates. The television helps reinforce previous attitudes and influence voters who are independent. The Internet is one other major key that impacted the election results. A decade ago, just one-in-fifty Americans got the news about a candidate from the Internet. Today, one-in-three Americans regularly get information about a candidate or the election online.These numbers show the candidates the importance of getting their message out to the public in order to gain more support. Culture heavily impacted the presidential election as well. The tremendous growth of minorities in the United States has lead to a greater impact of minorities during the presidential election. â€Å"A minority vote could make a difference in the presidential battleground†, (Zacarias, 2012). 2012 was a big year in elections because minorities could play a vital role in the outcome of the election. Obama and Romney both tried to get support from the minorities. Read also: â€Å"Advice About Communication†Obama constantly stated that he would reform immigration laws and this helped him gain more minority votes, which could have played a role in him beating Romney. Culture, and specifically minorities and immigration issues are going to become more and more popular in the upcoming elections. #3: Describe the effects of new technology on interpersonal communication, their accessibility, and their implications on global communication. New technologies are slowly taking over the world and a lot of face-to-face interactions happen through mediated technologies.Mediated communication is making it easier for people to communicate with each other, in a variety of contexts. Whether that is Skyping from school, conference calls at work or social networking with friends. One effect of the new technology is selectivity of the mass communication audience. New technology has made mass media become more selective. For example, newspaper-publishing c ompanies can now sort through hundreds of articles to publish or delete any column with a press of a button. This gives the gatekeeper a great responsibility because they have the ability to influence the flow of information to a receiver.The other big effect that technology has on interpersonal communication is enhancing communication. Technological innovations such as teleconferencing and telecommuting make it easier for people to communicate with others at separate locations. It is something that businesses of all kinds are adopting around the country. The effects of the new technology have given people the opportunity to extend relationships across local and national boundaries. â€Å"Currently, it’s estimated that there are 1. 1 billion people online throughout the world† (Internet Usage Statistics, 2007).This is an example of how much we rely on technology. New technology is in everything and everywhere we go. Through computers, cell phones, machines, satellites and e-mails; new technology have become more accessible to people in society. Just because technology has become more relied upon and accessible, does not mean it is necessarily good for society. One global implication is that it has made people more introverted. New technologies have become more convenient and therefore cause less human contact. People do not have to go outside of their home to get access to what’s currently going on around the world.The new technology also enables people to isolate themselves from the world and spend more time on media than perhaps other people. Not everyone has access to the new technologies and this creates a digital divide. On a more positive note, new technologies contribute to implement political or social change across. There will continue to be long-term global communication but it’s important that we don’t let technology overshadow human issues. #5: Think of a group you belong to. Describe your roles in relationship to the functioning of the group and any of the common difficulties that your group encounters in solving problems.The group I am going to pick for this decision is the executive committee. I am one of the 8 members in my fraternities executive committee. The executive committee consists of members that best represent the fraternity and meet when a decision or punishment needs to be made. The whole chapter votes the 8 members of the committee in and trust that decisions will be made to further the chapter’s excellence. Each person in the committee is equal in status. Some do not have power or authority over others. Last year I was the head of security for our house.With that being said, one on my primary roles is to give insight on issues that the guys might not know how to appropriately handle. I typically give suggestions and information to the committee that might not cross their mind right away. Opinion seeking, opinion giving and coordinating are things I keep in mind to he lp better the function of the group. I am going to talk about a situation that happened a few weeks ago. One of our brothers got drunk and decided to throw beer bottles in the street and curse our security. I happened to be on security tonight and talked to security so they did not have to come search our house.This brother put our house at risk and so there was an executive meeting called that next day. The overall consensus was to fine the brother 250. 00 for his actions. I gave insight and offered suggestions on how we could more effectively get through to the brother. The committee ended up listening to me and the brother is no longer allowed to drink in our house this semester. Since alcohol is essentially what caused him to act out in such a poor manner. The executive committee sometimes struggles when it comes to problem solving. Often the group is split and we have to call someone else in to count and therefore make the decision.One of the biggest problems that the group has when it comes to problem solving is railroading. Unfortunately there is always a guy or two, no matter what the issue is, that tries to force their will on the group. Another common problem that is often faced deals with constructive criticism. Some of the group members often attack each other if they feel offended instead of successfully challenging ideas. #6: What difficulties might arise with intercultural communication? Have you experienced any? Intercultural communication is something that has become so pervasive within the last few decades.This is due to advances in technologies and mass migration that has made long distance communication more reachable. One thing that is certain is that intercultural communication has become more available to the world. With that being said, there are several difficulties that might arise with the instant popularity of intercultural communication. The first difficulty that might arise is the use of language. Language differences go much deep er than simple translations. The Spair-Whorf hypothesis states that, â€Å"languages differ more than strict word-for-word translations often indicate because people who speak the languages have different needs. In high school my neighbor had an exchange student from Spain. I know the basics of the language as asked him for a vaso which I thought meant glass. It does mean glass but he made me aware that it could also mean substance. Even when we can manage to translate from one language to another with literal accuracy, the failure to understand idioms can create difficulties. Nonverbal messages are different throughout cultures and therefore can lead to difficulties and misunderstanding between people. The exchange student from Spain invited me over to his house one time.He asked me if I wanted something to drink and I nodded. He looked at me funny and did not move until I said yes please. I later found out that in Spain, nodding does not have the same meaning. Norms, roles, belie fs and values are also difficulties that might occur in intercultural communication. People in different cultures expect different behaviors from on another. â€Å"Each norm takes different forms in different countries (Christians and Traber, 1997). When it comes to greeting, in the United States people often shake hands or hug. In France it is common to kiss on the cheek.If a guy kissed a girl on the cheek here, he might leave with a black eye. Norms also can lead to misunderstandings. In our society, it is taught at an early age to speak up and make eye contact. However, in some countries, speaking up is considered disrespectful. Difficulties in intercultural communication might arise when it comes to beliefs and values. It happens often that someone from a country, who is speaking to people of a different country, might offend them. If people do not understand or accept the values of another country, difficulties and tensions will rise.Ethnocentrism and stereotypes are two probl ems that not accepting values of a country can lead to. Improving these perceptions will help reduce the amount of difficulties that are tied with intercultural communication. #7: Using your media/new technology journal, describe how mediated communication and communication technology affects your daily life. Apply concepts from the theories and textbook to explain your reliance (or lack thereof) on media. My laptop, cell phone and television are technologies that I use the most in life. I use these forms of technology everyday, in a variety of contexts.Whether that’s typing up a paper in my room, watching a football with friends, or Skyping with a friend in Paris. The types of technology and media listed in my journal have impacted communication in my life because I do not have as many face to face interactions and tend to be less extraverted. Whenever I use my laptop, I often get on the Internet. That’s because life has become so smooth with the Internet being easy t o access. Some of my main uses with it are connecting with friends, connect to social networks and browse different newsgroups to keep up on current information.According to USC’s Center for the Digital Future, 77. 6% of Americans are daily Interne users. That’s more than three quarters of the population and shows how important the Internet is in people’s daily lives. I will be the first to admit that I’d be lost without my cell phone. It is considered an essential in my daily life. Cell phones can be used in a variety of ways. Making phone calls, sending text messages, emailing, browsing the Internet and even shopping. With that being said, the main thing I use my cell phone for is convenience.Using my cell phone is not always a good thing though because it is sometimes a distraction and can be dangerous because sometimes I read texts while driving. The television is also a technology that I use to keep up with information. In my life, it serves as an ey e around the world. It helps educate myself through social, political and economic issues, which lead me to use selective attention. I often turn to the television for entertainment with friends because it helps bring us together and keep the dynamics of our group intact.Recent research finds that among college students the five most often used sources of news were, â€Å"hometown newspapers, comedy news, cable news, Internet news, and broadcast news† (Didi and LaRose, 2006). This shows how strong the relationship between personal and mediated communication can be in our daily lives. I use the media to choose communication that often confirms to my own beliefs. Selective exposure is something that I often do because seeking out something that is similar to my values or attitudes is something I would probably enjoy.

Saturday, September 28, 2019

Margaret Thatcher – Emancipated Woman

Even today in the year 2009 the top political positions in most countries are still male-dominated. Emancipation has made a lot of progress during the last decades, but woman in the prime political positions such as the president or the prime minister are still a rare sight. For example when Angela Merkel became the first female Chancellor of Germany in 2005 it was regarded as a milestone in German politics; and the USA, the country of freedom and sophistication has yet to experience a female president. One of the exceptions in this context is the UK. Not because of the UK itself but because of Margaret Thatcher.She took office as the first female Prime Minister of the UK as well as the first female leader of the Conservative Party already 30 years ago, when women in such high political positions were basically non-existent. She was one of the forerunners for the emancipated women in today’s world. She was nicknamed â€Å"the Iron Lady† and the term Thatcherism was inve nted to describe her distinctive style and content of her politics. So what set her apart from the others; how was it possible for her to become Britain’s first female Prime Minister, a feat that no other woman so far could duplicate?One reason for her inimitable success was definitely her steadfast character. She had a strong opinion and did not let others dissuade her from doing her thing. A prime example for this is her behavior in October of 1984 when the IRA made an attempt on her life, which became known as the Brighton hotel bombing. In the night of October 12, 1984, the IRA detonated large bombs in the Grand Hotel in Brighton/UK, where many high-level politicians were staying because of the British Conservative Party Conference the next day.The bomb detonated at around 3 o’clock in the morning, when Margaret was in her hotel room, still awake preparing a conference speech that she gave on the same day. The bomb badly damaged adjacent rooms and killed several of her fellow politicians, but she came away uninjured, spending the rest of the night at a police station for security reasons. The IRA claimed responsibility the next day, part of their statement was: â€Å"Mrs. Thatcher will now realize that Britain cannot occupy our country and torture our prisoners and shoot our people in their own streets and get away with it.Today we were unlucky, but remember we only have to be lucky once. You will have to be lucky always. Give Ireland peace and there will be no more war. † (IRA, 1984). One would assume that she needed a day off to assimilate the shock of the bombing, but Margaret continued to do business as usual, attended the Conference punctually at 9:30 (a mere 6 hours after the attack) and gave her speech which included the following statement â€Å"†¦the fact that we are gathered here now†¦is a sign not only that this attack has failed, but that all attempts to destroy democracy by terrorism will fail. (That-cher, 1984) Besides her resolute character, the other key component of her success was her political and economic philosophy. Thatcher was a firm supporter of democracy. She was anti-communism and in favor of free markets with little government intervention. In January 1976, as the leader of the opposition (before she became Prime Minister), she criticized the Soviet Union in a speech that included: â€Å"The men in the Soviet Politburo do not have to worry about the ebb and flow of public opinion. They put guns before butter, while we put just about. verything before guns. † (Thatcher, 1984). Other key elements of Thatcher’s philosophy included entrepreneurialism, monetarism, opposition to trade unions and privatization of state-owned industries Margaret Thatcher really was of the precursors of today’s emancipated women. She is one of the most influential British politicians of the last decades and the fact that she is a woman makes this even more impressive. Her incredib le success was mainly due to her unwavering character and the content of her politics and economic policies.The fact that Thatcher’s politics had a long-lasting effect becomes especially clear in a statement of Peter Mandelson, member of Parliament belonging to the British Labour Party: â€Å"we are all Thatcherites now. † (Mendelson, 2002) ? References Taylor, Peter. (2001). Brits : The War Against the IRA. 265-267. London: Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 0-7475-5806-X. Thatcher, Margaret. (1984). Speech to Conservative Party Conference, 12 October 1984 Mendelson, Peter. (2002). Mandelson: we are all Thatcherites now. retrived on April 7, 2009 from: The Guardian, Website: http://politics. guardian. co. uk/labour/story/0,9061,730718,00. html

Friday, September 27, 2019

Formative Assessment Paper Research Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Formative Assessment - Research Paper Example In this paper, I describe how I will create a formative assessment for a class I will be teaching and the role the psychometric models will play in my creation of the assessment. Moreover, I explain how I will use observation situation in my assessment and discuss the challenges I expect to encounter during creation of my assessment. 1. Creating a formative assessment for my class According to Brookhart (2010), it is necessary to organizing a formative assessment as a regular part of a learning instruction. The formative assessment will be organized in such a way that it will be incorporated into my teaching instructions. Before creating it, I will first decide what its purpose will be by selecting a formative assessment strategy that will serve my intended purpose better. I will then apply the formative assessment strategy I have selected to choose particular learning goals I will be assessing in my formative assessment. In addition, I will select what I will look for as my students undertake the assessment. Together we will think about how this assessment will help us in improving the learning process. Formative assessment chain consists of four activities which are: taking student response, monitoring the response, diagnose this response, share feedback based on this diagnose, helping student to use this feedback to learn better (Tuttle, 2010). In designing my formative assessment, I aim to consider all the four activities. I will first put into consideration the students’ responses based on what I suspect their learning skills and abilities are when selecting what to assess and how to assess it. After this, I will design a method that I can use to diagnose their response so that I can be able to determine their strength, weakness, and abilities. Then I will share the feedback from diagnose with my students and lastly using my knowledge and experience I will help my students to use this feedback to improve their learning. My formative assessment will have three components that are the feed-up, feedback and feed-forward. The main aim of feed-up will be to ensure that my students will always understand the purpose of the assignments, tasks, and lessons in use as part of my assessment. According to Frey and Fisher (2010), purpose drives both feedback and feed-forward. Thus, by ensuring that my students understand what they do and what they come across, I am certain I will be able to obtain accurate feedback that will be easy to implement in my feed-forward. I will use the feedback to obtain the information about the strengths and needs of my students. I will also use them to provide my students with this information. My main source of feedbacks will be assignments outcomes, observing how my students undertake the tasks, and assessing those tasks. I will observe how they learn during lessons. Most of this feedback will be in data form and, thus, they will require analysis and interpretation. I will use my statistical analysis and st atistical modeling to enhance my understanding of this data to give my students feedback that is as accurate as possible. I will use my feed-forward to guide my students’ learning based on the feedback I obtain from their performance data. In this component, I will put into consideration the students’ strengths, needs and weaknesses to design a teaching framework that can improve the learning of my students. In addition, I will be helping

Case Study on Proctor and Gamble Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

On Proctor and Gamble - Case Study Example Survey should be conducted on the international level, thus a firm should be hired specially to implement the survey. The interrogation will allow to reveal the countries, where the company has a chance to gain more profit. As it is stated, the company increased its research and development budget: â€Å"P&G invested nearly $2 billion in research & development in 2010, which was nearly 50 percent more than their closest competitor† (Badal).This will allow the organization to improve technological background and use the information technologies to make its working process more efficient. 2. The main weakness of the Proctor & Gamble is turnaround time. The company needs too much time to develop products and to get them to the market. This often leads to profits reduction. As it was mentioned above, the company increased research and development budget as well as created new strategies to make the processes more efficient. In order to have competitive advantage, it is essential t o successfully implement these strategies. All the company’s staff should be involved in this implementation. Company also has many strong points, such as high quality of its products as well as innovation. The main thing is to work more efficiently and make products reach the customers faster. The success factors should be approached from the critical point of view that will benefit the company as will make all the managers and employees focused on the same goals. It is also essential for the company to improve customer service to be able to answer customer’s questions at any time. Given that all these points adjusted, the company will have competitive advantage. 3. If to look at the tables provided in the case study, Proctor & Gamble has competitive advantage, thus the company has high potential to stay successful in future and even to increase its revenues. The company’s mission is very promising: â€Å"We will provide branded products and services of superi or quality and value that improve the lives of the world's consumers, now and for generations to come. As a result, consumers will reward us with leadership sales, profit and value creation, allowing our people, our shareholders, and the communities in which we live and work to prosper† (Badal). The main goals of the company are to increase sales, innovated product lines, reach more customers. Organization is going to â€Å"focus on and serve price-conscious consumers with lowerpriced products, offering superior performance compared to competing products† (Badal). Proctor & Gamble aims at entering new markets and focusing on consumer’s needs. Like any other company, Proctor & Gamble also has a number of weaknesses, but it is going to improve the situation with its turnaround time and communication with the customers. If these points are adjusted, the company will continue thriving. 4. In order to keep the competitive advantage the company must innovate. It is imp ortant not only to create innovation strategy, but also to find the ways of its successful implementation. In order to do that it is necessary to involve all the people, who are working in the organization in the process to make the product reach the customers efficiently. It is essential to remember that it is not as organization that innovates, it is the employees, who find new solutions. It is

Thursday, September 26, 2019

Consumption in Wall-E Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Consumption in Wall-E - Essay Example Consumption is often thought of in regard to food; the act of hoarding food to the point of becoming overweight. Though this holds true in Wall-E and plays an essential role in the story, consumption can also mean the obtaining of consumer goods. Similar to hoarding food, this definition of consumption means to hoard consumer items, such as electronics or other material possessions, until there is simply too much of these items. In Wall-E, consumption is seen in both of these ways. The humans displayed in the film are overweight due to food consumption and are in the position of not being able to live on Earth because of mass consumption of consumer goods while they were living on the planet. Wall-E uses the conditions of the people and the Earth to show the message of how serious consumption can be and how close we are to following some of the actions seen in the movie. The film opens up to reveal an empty, trash-filled Earth. Due to mass consumption, which essentially took over the Earth, the extensive litter left behind made the air toxic, therefore making the Earth uninhabitable to people. Until the Earth is cleaned and habitable once again, the humans live on a spaceship hovering above the Earth. Far from being concerned about the state of their home, the humans lounge happily away in chairs that take them to whatever part of the craft they want to go to. They have all of the food that they could want, making it easy for them to gorge themselves to an unhealthy weight. These people let consumption get the better of them, resulting in a decline in health and control over their lives. Instead of learning their lesson about what took place on Earth, they continued to consume now that they had a new place to do it. The people in Wall-E, as well as the condition of the Earth, reveal how important we allow products to be in our lives. People have been known to throw away all of their money just so that they can have the newest top-of-the-line cell phone. A month later, when a newer model comes out, that first model goes in the trash and the new one is bought. The cycle continues, gradually covering our world with garbage, which is all due to our need of having stuff. More products are being created and thrown out than we can keep up with. We begin to think less of ourselves, less of our surroundings, and more about the wonderful toys and gadgets that we can get our hands on. People would rather risk being unhealthy and living in a dirty world than giving up even a single material possession. We no longer allow ourselves and our world to define us; our products and our need to have as much stuff as possible is what defines who we are. The world may be polluted, but we do not mind that as long as we have our cell phones. We have become both masters and slaves to material possessions. We are masters in the sense that we create products to do what we want them to do, which usually includes having them be capable of completing a task that makes our lives easier and less busy. We control what these products can do. On the other hand, we have become so consumed by material possessions that we are also slaves to them. We have allowed them to take over our lives to the point where many of us are willing to admit to it, yet refuse to do anything about it. We may be slaves to them, but they seem to be doing us so much good. This is where it tends to get confusing; we believe these products are

Wednesday, September 25, 2019

Computer Security Analyses Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3750 words

Computer Security Analyses - Essay Example As we increasingly depend on sophisticated internet and networks, the threat perceptions will also correspondingly increase, posing a potential danger to the overall security of data and information. As and when, there are reports of computer security breaches and vulnerabilities, system administrators and business managers tend to publish the vulnerabilities that have affected the system. Full disclosures are provided with an idea to fix the problems; most of the disclosures are done to find a viable solution to the problem, as many business managers, tend believe that there will be someone, who can suggest a good solution. But, many experts may not agree with the full disclosure of vulnerabilities to the public, as they feel that, they may increase the "window of exposure" (Bruce Schneier, 2000). This analysis attempts to find out issues that are concerned with full disclosures and their impact on the overall security of an organization. Experts believe that Global Internet threats are undergoing a profound transformation from attacks designed solely to disable infrastructure, to those that also target people and organizations. They also opine that, behind these new attacks, is a large pool of compromised hosts sitting in homes, schools, businesses, and governments around the world. These systems are infected with a bot that communicates with a bot controller and other bots, to form what is commonly referred to as a zombie army or botnet. This analysis report is created to highlight the importance of botnets and zombies, in internet technology and their real-time impact on the security apparatus of an internet network. Every piece of electronic document contains some form of metadata that is embedded within the document, and such data usually contains confidential and potentially embarrassing information, that could be shared with an unintended audience. This paper also attempts to find out how metadata could jeopardize the confidentiality of a document creator, and the ways that could be deployed to prevent transmission of such sensitive user data to the general public. Biometrics is a modern tool for authentication and this

Tuesday, September 24, 2019

International Law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

International Law - Essay Example In order to determine whether or not the state has a right to use self-defence against a non-state actor under contemporary international law, the theory of jus ad bellum within the context of the UN Charter, Article 51 will have to examined. This paper will argue that the principle characteristics of the theory of jus ad bellum and Article 51, although design to control hostilities between states, can be interpreted to permit the use of military force in self-defence against non-state actors. The theory jus ad bellum is a evolved from Western cultures as a guide for reconciling â€Å"right with might† or â€Å"sollen with sein.†5 The primary objective of the doctrine of jus ad bellum was to cultivate a concept that military force was only justified in response to unprovoked aggression. Likewise, military force could be legitimately used for the purpose of restoring order or correcting a violated right. Military force could also be used legitimately for punitive reason.6 Taken together as a whole, the theory of jus ad bellum dictates generally that military force could legitimately be used for humanitarian intervention and for protection of sovereignty. After the Second World War, the United Nations was formed by virtue of the UN Charter which ultimately re-introduced and reconstructed the ambit of jus ad bellum.7 The primary purpose of the UN was to prevent war among the nations of the world.8 Following the 1990s Kosovo conflict International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty modified the UN Charter setting restraints for the exceptions to the UN’s policy on permissible military force between states under the auspices of jus ad bellum. Under the UN Charter the contemporary concept of just war of jus ad bellum dictates merely that war can no longer be justified on the grounds of humanitarian intervention, but for purposes of self defence.9 The UN Charter was implemented on October 24,

Monday, September 23, 2019

Classical Conditioning At Work (Pschology) Essay

Classical Conditioning At Work (Pschology) - Essay Example 3. The smell of the food is the Unconditioned Stimulus and Kyle’s hunger and drooling is the Unconditioned Response. The ring of the Microwave, which is associated with the food, is the Conditioned Stimulus and Kyle drooling whenever the bell rings is the Conditioned Response. 4. Lucy’s cousin’s scream and cry and dragging Lucy brutally into the house while playing is the Unconditioned Stimulus and Lucy’s fear is the Unconditioned Response. The proposition of playing outside later becomes the Conditioned Stimulus and Lucy’s fear of ‘wasps’ associated with playing is the Conditioned Response. 5. The situation in which Pooyi had to give a speech in the English class is the Unconditioned Stimulus. Pooyi getting nervous and fearing that she would be sick is the Unconditioned Response. The fact that Barbara was sitting in the front row with too much Passion perfume makes the smell of the Passion perfume the Conditioned Stimulus and Pooyi feeling extremely nervous and sick to her stomach every time she smells Passion perfume is the Conditioned Response. 6. The electric razor shorting out and burning the chin of Moussa is the Unconditioned Stimulus. The pain and shock Moussa must have experienced then is the Unconditioned Response. Situations where Moussa has to handle electric toasters, coffee makers and toaster ovens are instances of Conditioned Stimulus and Moussa’s fear of them is the Conditioned Response. 7. The electric shock is the Unconditioned Stimulus and the cat’s shock and pain is the Unconditioned Response. The blue light that was paired with the electric shocks is the Conditioned Stimulus and the cat’s heart racing when the blue light is presented is the Conditioned Response. 8. The sickness that Juma felt is the Unconditioned Stimulus and her suffering is the Unconditioned Response. The meatballs

Sunday, September 22, 2019

Natural Gas Essay Example for Free

Natural Gas Essay Qatar is known to have the third largest reserve in the world for natural gas. It is a colorless, shapeless, odorless gas in its natural form. Main property of this gas that made it so prized is its combustibility. When burned, natural gas emits a great deal of energy (NaturalGas. org, 2004). But not like fossil fuels, natural gas is a clean burning gas with lower level of potentially harmful byproducts is emitted into the air as resultant to the combustion process. Natural gas is usually composed of a mixture of combustible hydrocarbon gases. While natural gas is formed primarily of methane, it can also include ethane, propane, butane and pentane. The composition of natural gas can vary widely but in its purest form it is mainly composed of methane. Usually found under the earth, this gas is usually associated with oil deposits. Natural gas is another form of fossil fuel, like coal and oil, and is essentially the remains of plants and animals. Use of natural gas as an energy source comprises 24% of the total energy consumption in the US for the year 2000. Natural gas, with its varied usage and has many different applications for industrial, commercial and residential sectors, is vital component of the nations energy supply. PHOTOVOLTAICS Photovoltaic literally means light electricity, which was derived from the Greek words photo and volt. Photovoltaic materials and devices basically generate electricity by converting light or solar energy into electricity that can be utilized by devices requiring electrical power. It was discovered by a French physicist Edmond Becquerel on1839 while conducting an experiment involving electrolytic cell connected by two metals as electrodes. Since then harnessing of solar electricity has been developed and used (Solar_Energy_and_Technology_Program, 2005). Since the discovery of photoconductivity, solar energy has been harnessed to generate electricity. On 1873, Wilby Smith identified Selenium to demonstrate photoconductivity. Photovoltaic property was also observed Adams and Day to be exhibited by Selenium while in its solid form. The first solar cell was created by Charles Fritts on 1883, which was made from Selenium wafers (Corrosion_Doctors, 2007). PV was originally developed to provide power to devices on places that would require a renewable source of energy like in outer space. With the development of PV devices or solar devices, PV cells have been used in providing power to spacecrafts and devices. The first reported usage of PV cells was during 1959 for the Vanguard 1 satellite using silicon wafers in the solar device. This satellite lasted for 8 years in operation (Corrosion_Doctors, 2007). Since Vanguard 1 other spacecrafts and satellite were reported to utilize also PV technology in providing power to manned and unmanned crafts and satellites. PV generation is gaining increased importance as renewable source due to its advantages like absence of fuel cost, no noise or wear due to absence of moving parts and little maintenance. The world market for photovoltaic exceeded 200 MW in 1999 could rise to 650 MW in 2005 and 1800 MW in 2010 – provided that installed costs for grid-connected PV drop to less than US $4/ Wp in 2005 and $3 in 2010. The world grid-connected market grew to 110 MW in 2000, 400 MW in 2005 and will grow to 700 MW in 2010 provided the installed costs will decrease to $3/W by 2010. The following tables and graphs show a general idea of how the PV world market is growing and how the prices of PV modules/Wp is dropping since the year 1990 up until now and in the upcoming future. PV Cells PV cells or solar cells, composed of semiconductors that are made from crystalline solids, which permits electrical conduction when connected to two metals, are devices that converts solar or radiant energy into electrical energy. This thin wafer of semiconductor is chemically treated to produce negative charge on one side and positive charge on the other side. A p-n junction separates and connects the two oppositely charged sides. The process of converting sunlight into electricity is explained in three processes 1. Sunlight is absorbed by the thin semiconductor wafer. 2. Positive and negative charges are generated and are separated in the different parts of the cell. The movement of these particles generates voltage within the cell. 3. And, the electrical current generated by the separation of the charges is transferred to the intended device via the electrical terminals connected to the cell. When sunlight is absorbed by the solar cell, electron hole pairs are generated, and if their recombination is prevented they can reach the junction where they are separated. The electrons are moved into the front side or negative side of the cell. Commercial solar cells usually designate the negative side in the front part. The back or other side of the cells is designated as the positive side. When these two are connected electrical current flows between through wires connected to the electrical device. The current that flows is usually proportional on the intensity of the sunlight that the solar cell captures (Elwell Komp, 2007). The back contact or positive side is usually made of continuous layer of metal but the front contact, on the other hand is usually made into thin fingers. The front contacts are evenly spaced to allow the as much sunlight to reach the positive side of the cell. The cell is covered with an anti reflection coating to maximize the absorption of sunlight. A thin protective coating covers the cell to allow cleaning and maintenance (Elwell Komp, 2007). An example of a single solar cell structure is shown in figure 1. PV cells are manufactured in many shapes and sizes. Some are even smaller than a postage stamp. While there are individual cells that are many inches across. Interconnected PV cells form a PV module. Modules are interconnected to form a PV array. The module is designed to contain a number of Silicon cells interconnected as a series of thin layers. This is purposely intended to protect the solar cells from the ambient and as well as generate a higher voltage compared to a single cell, which delivers less than 1 volt. Arrays varies in the size that is needed dependent upon the amount of sunlight that the location is receiving and the needed power generated by the array depending the intended usage. The array is not just composed of the PV modules, which comprises the majority of the PV system, it also includes the electrical connection, mounting hardware, power-conditioning equipment and batteries that store the generated electricity intended for use during the times when the sun is not available or shining (Solar_Energy_and_Technology_Program, 2005). Crystalline silicon solar cells are used in more than half of all solar electric devices. Like most semiconductor devices, they include a positive layer (on the bottom) and a negative layer (on the top) that create an electrical field inside the cell. When a photon of light strikes a semiconductor, it releases electrons (see animation). The free electrons flow through the solar cells bottom layer to a connecting wire as direct current (DC) electricity. Some solar cells are made from polycrystalline silicon, which consists of several small silicon crystals. Polycrystalline silicon solar cells are cheaper to produce but somewhat less efficient than single-crystal silicon (Solar Electricity, 2004). A simple silicon solar cell can power a watch or calculator. However, it produces only a tiny amount of electricity. Connected together, solar cells form modules that can generate substantial amounts of power. Modules are the building blocks of solar electric systems, which can produce enough power for a house, a rural medical clinic, or an entire village. Large arrays of solar electric modules can power satellites or provide electricity for utilities. Solar Electric System Components (Solar Electricity, 2004). PV cells can be made from different semiconductor materials but the most commonly used in manufacturing is crystalline silicon. Crystalline silicon has gained popularity since it was the first material used in the earliest successful PV devices. Silicon has 14 electrons and its orbital arrangements allows up to four electrons to be given, shared or accepted. These outermost electrons, known as valence electron, play a vital part in photoelectric effect of solar cells. Solar cell technology benefited greatly from the high standard of silicon technology developed originally for transistors and later for integrated circuits. This applied also to the quality and availability of single crystal silicon of high perfection. In the first years, only Czochralski (Cz) grown single crystals were used for solar cells. This material still plays an important role. As the cost of silicon is a significant proportion of the cost of a solar cell, great efforts have been made to reduce these costs. One technology, which dates back to the 1970s, is block casting which avoids the costly puling process. Silicon is melted and poured into a square SiO/SiN coated graphite crucible. Controlled cooling produces a polycrystalline silicon block with a large crystal grain structure.

Saturday, September 21, 2019

Advantage And Disadvantages Of Fixed Wing Versus Rotor Wing Engineering Essay

Advantage And Disadvantages Of Fixed Wing Versus Rotor Wing Engineering Essay Since 1919, law enforcement agencies have used fixed wing and rotor wing aircrafts to assist in enforcing the law. In 2007, data from the Bureau of Justice Statistics showed that large law enforcement departments provided aerial enforcement in the District of Columbia and 46 states. There were 295 airplanes and 604 helicopters being operated, which flew more than 330,000 missions. http://bjs.ojp.usdoj.gov/content/pub/pdf/aullea07.pdf The types of airplane that are used by law enforcement are Cessna 182, Cessna 206, Pilatus PC-12 Spectres, P-3 Orions, Citations, Learjets, Gulfstream jets, King Air 350s and 200s and some larger airliner-type aircraft. Some of the helicopters used are the American Euro-copter EC120/130/145, AStar AS350/355N/350 B2, Dolphin HH-65C, Blackhawk UH-60, Maverick, Raven II R44, Cayuse OH-6 and McDonnell Douglas MD 600. The types of missions these aircrafts conduct are surveillance, drug interdiction, fugitive searches, routine patrol or support, search and res cue, personnel transport, prisoner transport, SWAT operation, traffic enforcement, speed enforcement, homeland security, photographic, medical support and evacuation. Both types of aircrafts have their advantages and disadvantages in airborne law enforcement. http://www.kansas.com/2010/08/01/1427779/aviation-sees-growth-in-law-enforcement.html. The advantages that a helicopter has over an airplane are that they can land and take off without the need for run ways. Their airfoil shape rotors are like the wings of an airplane, as the rotor spins, air flow faster over the tops of the blades than it does under, thus creating lift for flight. Their unique rotor design allows for them to takeoff vertically, fly in any direction including sideways, backwards and hover over an area. Their ability to hover provides coverage for the ground units on the street and if needed land to assist in foot pursuits. They can be equipped with a winch for the purpose of lowering or picking up personnel or equipments on the ground, at sea or on mountains during a search and rescue mission, where there is no place to land . They are better able to maneuver around tall structures at lower altitudes. manhttp://library.thinkquest.org/J0112389/helicopters.htm. On 14 November 2008, San Diego Police Department ABLE helicopter used the FLIR camera to catch a man facing murder charges for beating another with a crutch in the middle of the street. http://www.policeone.com/police-products/tactical/night-vision/videos/5954944-police-helicopter-catches-bizarre-street-fight-on-flir-camera On 30, January 3013 the NYPD police helicopter rescues a shipà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s captain who was having a heart attack. A dramatic nighttime helicopter rescue in New Yeark Harbor may have saved the life of a shipà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s captain. Police say they received a call Tuesday night that the captain of the Panamanian cargo ship Grey Shark was having a heart attack. The NYPD harbor medical team stabilized the 60 year old captain before calling the help of a police helicopter. A basket was lowered to hoist him up into the chopper, which then flew him to Staten Island University Hospital North. He was listed in stable condition. http://www.ny1.com/content/top_stories/176246/police-helicopter-rescues-ship-captain-who-was-having-a-heart-attack The helicopters are force multipliers for ground units, because they can monitor the tactical environment, give alerts or observe things which the ground units are unable to detect. Additionally, they can respond and cover ground more quickly than ground units. The flight deck of a helicopter can be equipped with multiple electronic equipments. Electronic Flight Instrument System (EFIS) also know as glass cockpit that provides flight and system information to the crew, Forward Looking Infrared (FLIR) camera allows the crew to see images created from infrared energy, moving map system show their location, satellite phones provide direct communication, dig ital video downlink gives real time images, night vision goggles can be used in low light situation if needed, loudspeakers for communication or message deliver to the ground, tear gas dispensers, police and aviation radios . Disadvantages helicopters are that they cost more to operate and maintain. A fully equipped helicopter can cost from $500,000 to $3 million and the flying costs ranges from $200 to $400 per hour. http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/nation/2007-09-30-cophelicopters_N.htm Maintenance, fuel, leasing and financing cost are three times then the cost to operate and maintain airplanes. Due to its abilities to fly lower and hover over areas it creates lots of noise and is easily detectable. The capacities of passengers that a helicopter can carry are limited. The Robinson RA-44 can carry 2 to 4 personnel and others like the Blackhawk UH-60 can carry 11 personnel or the Bell UH-1 that can be configured to carry 15 personnel. The general commercial helicopters used by t he law enforcement agencies have a flight time of two to four hours, with top speed from 50 to 200 knots and an average range of about 200 miles. The operations of fixed wing aircraft have some advantages over rotor wing aircrafts in law enforcement. They can perform a wide range of missions which requires them to stay airborne longer then a rotor wing aircraft is able to. Fix wing aircraft can carry more payloads and engine performances are great then those of rotor wing aircrafts. Aero surveillance, homeland security, speed enforcement and transport of people or gear are mostly the missions performed. http://www.lawofficer.com/article/patrol/fixed-wing-aircraft-law-enforc They are equipped with a variety of high tech equipments just as their rotor wing counterparts. The cabins are pressurized and allow for higher altitude flights. They can perform surveillance 5,000 ft to 6,000 ft and not be undetected. The average costs to maintain and operate a fixed wing aircraft per flight is about $54 for maintenance and $45 for fuel compared to a rotor wing aircraft. http://bjs.ojp.usdoj.gov/content/pub/pdf/aullea07.pdf The Custom Border Patrolà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s P-3 AEW Orion airplane has a large fuel capacity of 60,000 lbs; flight time up to 10 to 13 hours, maximum range at low altitude is 2,500 NM and at high altitude 3,800 NM. Average cruising speed is 300 to 330 knots. It can carry a crew of 12 to 21 personnel. Normal crew consists of four systems operators, three pilots, two flight engineers and three maintenance crew members. This aircraft is integration with the E-2 Hawkeye aircraft radar system, which allows for it to see 200 NM in all directions. They coordinate and direct Navy and Coast Guard ship and aircrafts to the location of drug smuggling boats or planes. Primary mission are interdiction, over water operations, surveillance and homeland security. The use of this aircraft between the Jacksonville, Florida and the Texas office have contributed to the cap ture and seizure of 50 metric tons of drugs worth a roughly about 2 Billion dollars. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vqCtrB_FZvE Fixed wing light sport aircraft generally cost between $60,000 and $130,000 to purchase and $50 per hour to fuel and maintain. They can fly at wide range of speeds of 35 to 125 knots making them an excellent platform for performing a broad range of law enforcement missions. It can carry up to 500 lbs and travel twice as far as a helicopter could. http://nij.gov/nij/topics/law-enforcement/operations/aviation/types-of-aircraft.htm The disadvantages of fix winged aircrafts are they require a runway to take off and land, assembling of the flight crew, delay on taking off due to congestion at airport, unable to see the other side of the aircraft. They cannot monitor the tactical environment very well and or unable to alerts or observe things which the ground units are unable to detect. Unable to land and assist with foot pursuits, canà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢t hover, t he aircraft is not equipped with rescue winch. http://www.usafp.org/op_med/fldmedopns/airevac.htm http://www.jrsa.org/events/conference/presentations-09/Lynn_Langton.pdf http://bjs.ojp.usdoj.gov/content/pub/pdf/aullea07.pdf http://www.kansas.com/2010/08/01/1427779/aviation-sees-growth-in-law-enforcement.html

Friday, September 20, 2019

McDonalds Workplace Hygeine

McDonalds Workplace Hygeine Executive Summary This report is to apply the HACCP to check and evaluate the food safety procedures in one of the most famous fast-food company; the McDonald .and also aims at offering some suggestions to correct some of the non-satisfactory procedures. The report will describe it from the following aspects: personal hygiene, cleaning and sanitizing, pest control, garbage disposal, receiving foods, storing foods, cooling defrosting, cooking and holding. McDonald is a leading food service retailer. Just in the USA, it has more than 12,300 traditional restaurants, plus approximately 1320 satellite locations in facilities like hospitals. They serve more than 21.8 million customers a day. So how dose the food safety procedures go on in McDonald is of great importance, which is related to the health of consumers. In order to apply the HACCP to check the food safety procedure, this report does a study of the food safety procedure in the McDonald, and find out that as a successful enterprise, McDonald develops detailed provisions to ensure the food safety procedure, making food safety a key factor to its success. Introduction Produce and serve safe food is the final goal for foodservice operations (Yi-Mei Sun, 2005). It was reported that HACCP system have not yet been homogeneously implemented across all of the food industry (Panisello and Quantick, 2001; G.Campbell-Platt, 2002). The key action, known as critical control points can be taken to reduce or eliminate the risk of the hazards being realized. It is used in the food industry to identify potential food safety hazards at all stages of food production and preparation processes. McDonald, as the biggest fast food retailer in the world, take the food safety as a never-ending process, from raw materials, through the facilities and distribution centers, and all the way to the restaurants. It„ ¢s a top priority at McDonald„ ¢s. (Sarah Fister Gale, 2006). Situational Analysis Personal Hygiene Personal hygiene of the workers is probably one of the most important thing, because the workers need to interact with the customers, and in the McDonald, they are responsible for the dinning environment. McDonald has specific regulations for workers„ ¢ personal hygiene as follows: 1. Clothes must be clean and appropriate. 2. Keep hair clean, ladies„ ¢ face should not be covered by the hair. 3. Men„ ¢s hair should be above the collar, long hair is not allowed. 4. Men need to shave and manicure everyday. 5. Ladies should wear the appropriate make-up. And too much decoration is not allowed. 6. Keep the fingernail clean and short. 7. Maintain oral hygiene and regular bathing. 8. Members of the McDonald„ ¢s restaurant management group need to wear uniforms. 9. Wash hand before going to workstation. Of all the McDonald„ ¢s hygiene standards, most of the regulations are carried out by nearly all the workers in McDonald. But there is the told by one of the workers in McDonald: Sorry to ruin your idea about McDonald„ ¢s and hand washing. I„ ¢ve worked at McDonald„ ¢s for three months, and I never see anyone wear gloves, or wash their hands, managers included. Since this comments comes from the forum, it is difficult for us the judge its reliability. However, the suggestions for the McDonald manager is that, they need to pay more attention to the workers personal hygiene, and try their best the make the situation much better. Cleaning and Sanitizing Cleaning and Sanitizing are necessary processes to create a clean and nice environment for the customers in the McDonald. According to the HACCP, cleaning and sanitizing should follow four steps: pre-clean, main clean, sanities and drying. Regulations concerned about cleaning and sanitizing in the McDonald are: Pre-clean: 1. The dining tables, chairs ,windows and equipment should be spotless. 2. All the tableware and machine should be completely cleaned and sanitizing after work. 3. The glass must be rub everyday 4. The parking lot must be flush everyday 5. The trash bin must be brushed everyday Main clean: McDonald makes a readily cleaning regulation to main clean. Readily cleaning regulation means anybody in any position must clean the peripheral position to keep the position clean. What is more, the McDonald has its own special method to simplify the clean and sanitizing job and save the time spent on clean and sanitizing. Firstly, they use lots of paper, plastic and other disposable tableware. This means, the worker only needs to put the table wares which are left by the customers when they finish into the garbage bin, and clean the table. Then everything is done. Secondly, they use trays and trays of paper, which are convenient for the customers to carry, and reduce the chance to dirt the desk. And as a result ,save the time spent on cleaning the table. Finally, all the kitchen equipments are of stainless steel surface. As the stainless steel surface is easy to clean, the efficiency of cleaning work is improved. Pest control Pest control is also of great importance. Nobody likes the presence of pests which transmit diseases. Here is what has been done in McDonald concerned about pest control: 1.McDonald especially focus on the controlling of cockroach. 2 In the entrance of the distribution center, a kind of special yellow light has been designed to drive the fly. 3 The inside of the distribution center has been painted white, especially the floor around the warehouse. Then it will be much easy to trace the cockroach and the mouse. and some actions can be taken to prevent bad ting from happening. In McDonald, the keys to successful pest controls are as follows: 1. Correct identification of the pest is the first step in control, because information on pest biology, ecology, and behavior can be easily obtained if the pest is known. 2. It is important to detect pest problems early. Careful visual inspections can help in early detection of infestations. 3. Control measures must be timed to target the most vulnerable stage of pests. as many pests are susceptible to control measures at certain times in their lives. Garbage disposal There are many garbage need to dispose everyday in McDonald. In order to protect the environment , McDonald uses paper bags instead of bags. Here are the regulations related to garbage disposal in McDonald: 1 Disposal garbage day and never leave them until tomorrow. 2 Workers must clean the place around them at anytime. 3 Use different trash bins to separate the different kinds of garbage. 4 Wear gloves when dispose garbage 5 Wash hand after disposing garbage Although garbage disposal is a small little thing, attention should be paid to, otherwise it will be harmful to the cleaning procedure. Receiving foods According to the HACCP, the receiving contains the following aspects, and this report wills analysis the situation in the McDonald following the HACCP: 1. Approved source. To make all the products has the same flavor, the McDonald especially focus on the standardization of raw materials. And all the materials must be offered by the McDonald distribution center. 2. Choosing the suppliers Knowing that suppliers are a major player in fulfilling its promise and adhering to its social responsibility, McDonal„ ¢s ensures 100% eligibility before adding any resource to its database of approved suppliers. To quality as a McDonald„ ¢s supplier, they must meet the McDonald„ ¢s internal food safety standards, product specification and farm biosecurity policies 3. Guality supervision and inspection The McDonald has stringent procurement standards. The purchasing department is responsible for quality supervision and inspection of the raw materials of the suppliers. When a defective product is found, it should be return immediately. And the suppliers should solve the problem as soon as possible. If the suppliers can not solve the problem before the deadline, their qualification for suppliers will be canceled. So the goods receiving procedure of the McDonald is following the HACCP. Storing Foods Storing foods is a funny thing for McDonald. According to the HACCP, the McDonald can store the hamburger that is not sold out as well as the method is correct and proper. 1. The French fries must be thrown away, if it can not be sold out within seven minutes. 2. The hamburger must be thrown away, if it can not be sold out within ten minutes. It is not because of food decay or food defect. The McDonald insists on offering the most valuable and qualified food to the customers. And this is just right the reason why the McDonald does what is mentioned above. So, storing foods is in fact not only a funny thing for McDonald but also a serious thing for McDonald. And through the following statements one can see, how serious it is: 1. The temperature inside the house for cold storage should be between 1 and 4, and the temperature of the house for cold storage should be between -22ÃÆ'‚ °~18ÃÆ'‚ °. 2. Special attention should be paid to the storage of hamburger, otherwise accident will be easy to happen ,if it is not storied under the standard temperature. 3. The storage of food and materials should be obey to the regulations. And it definitely follows the HACCP, or even does a greater job. Cooling and Defrosting Cooling is a useful way to keep most of the food or materials fresh. When inspect whether the food is fresh or not, McDonald pays much attention to the test of temperature, especially the temperature control of the frozen food. The workers much inspect every product to make sure it is under the condition of cooling. The main principle for the refrigerate is insisting -FIFO , the FIFO stands for first in first out. Special methods have been made, concerned about how to organize the food, for example, there can only be six boxes of French fries up forward. Before the food being cooled, the manager need to inspect the temperature and the quality of the goods. Cooking and Holding The reported foodborne illness cases per year were 76 millions in the US(Tauxe, 2002) and 9.4 millions in the UK(Walker, et al, 2003).Improper food handling is responsible for 97% of food borne illness associated catering(Griffith CJ, 2000). The McDonald pays much attention to cooking and handling procedure. The main principle for cooking is -less amount many time  which can ensure the high quality and high fresh level of the food. For instance, twelve hamburgers should be made in four minutes; workers can not cook the twelve hamburgers at one time. The time figured out for making one hamburger is one handured and forty-five senconds, take the additional time into consideration, humburgers can be made in ten minutes. Nearly all foods in the McDonald have the specific holding time, the holding time for humbuegers is ten minutes, for french fries is seven minutes, for apple pie is ten minutes, and for coffee is thirty minutes, and the temperature of the milk sent by the supplier mus t be under 4ÃÆ' ¢Ãƒâ€¦Ã‚ ¾Ãƒâ€  , otherwise, it will be returned. Conclusions In conclusion, workplace hygiene is very important to McDonald which does a good job in such eight aspects above-mentioned. McDonald„ ¢s ways to manage the workplace hygiene can be good references for other similar establishments. Beause of the work for hygiene is systematic, there may be some behaviours not conform to specified requirements exsit, for instance, some worker may omit washing, McDonald still needs to make better use of the HACCP to make the situation even better. References Griffith, CJ 2000. Food safety in catering establishments, in: Safe Handling of Foods, JM Farber and ECD Todd, Eds., Marcel Dekker, New York, 235-256. G.Campbell-Platt 2002. HACCP/food safety objectives. Food Control ,13, PP. 353. Panisello,P.J, Quantick,P.C 2001. Technical barriers to hazard analysis critical control point. Food Control,12(3), PP. 165-173. Sarah Fister Gale 2006. CASE STUDIES IN FOOD PROTECTION McDonaldds USA: A Golden Arch of Supply Chain Food Safety. Food Safety Magazine [Online] Issue February/March 2006, Available at:http://www.foodsafetymagazine.com/article.asp?id=491sub=sub1 [Accessed 12 Sep 2009] Tauxe, R.V 2002. Surveillance and investigation of food borne diseases. Food Control,13,PP. 363-369. Walker, E.,Pritchard,C., Forsythe,S. 2003. Hazard analysis critical control point and prerequisite programme implementation in small and medium size food business. Food Control,14, PP. 169-174. Yi-Mei Sun., H.W.Ockerman 2005. A review of the needs and current applications of hazard analysis and critical control point(HACCP) system in foodservice areas. Food Control,16, PP. 325-332.

Thursday, September 19, 2019

Coal Fires :: Fire Coal Mining Essays

Coal Fires I’ve long been familiar with the concept of coal mines, but a common occurrence I was unfamiliar with previous to this class was the concept of coal mine fires, but it is a huge problem, both economically and environmentally. Perhaps the most infamous American example of a coal mine fire is Centralia, a town in the anthracite region of eastern Pennsylvania. Centralia was like any other coal town until one fateful day in 1962, when a heap of burning trash in a dump that doubled as a mine stripping pit quickly spread to other parts of the mine. After a few months of bureaucratic haggling, the local government finally agreed to drill to suffocate the fire, but it had spread faster than had been anticipated and could not easily be contained. In the next few years, subsequent efforts to quell the fire proved futile while it expanded beyond the confines of the coal mine to other areas underneath people’s residences in the town of Centralia. Because the ground, at places, was literally breathing carbon monoxide into people’s homes, within a few years Centralia became a place unliveable for its residents and, in 1981, the government bought the town out, paying to ship Centralia’s population elsewhere, away from the barren, sinking land and its still-raging fires that had been incited almost 20 years previous. A few remained behind despite the government-paid relocation and they still remain today, but the fire below them still remains also, raging unabated beneath what was once a booming town. (Tietz) The problem of Coal fires is not limited to Centralia, Pennsylvania, however. It is a problem that has caused major difficulties both in other areas of the United States (like Colorado) and also other parts of the world. In Indonesia, for instance, a series of forest fires in 1982 ignited a series of coal fires, 106 of which the government was able to extinguish, leaving 159 that are still raging to this very day. (Amos) A coal fire in Jharia, India, that had already caused the government to relocate the town’s population, destroyed a riverbank, unleashing a rush of water in the underground mines that drowned 78 coal workers. By some estimates, fires that rage in the northern coal belt of China burn something like 200 million tons of coal each year. (Krajick) While the economic cost of this is considerable — over $1 billion spent in the United States alone, despite the fact that the relatively few coal fires it plays host to are still extant — the environmental cost is perhaps even more alarming.

Wednesday, September 18, 2019

Hittite’s Self-Image Characterized by Grandeur :: Hittite Culture Cultural History Essays

Hittite’s Self-Image Characterized by Grandeur The Hittite empire, like many others of the Bronze Age, arose at a time when new tactics and implements for fighting were being developed in abundance. Like many other empires of that time, the Hittites recognized the importance of protecting their lands and acquiring new ones. As the size and influence of the Hittite empire grew, it sometimes formed peaceful agreements with foreign lands. These agreements, however, primarily served their own interests. Evidence of the behavior of the Hittites found in primary documents reveals that they treated civilizations other than their own as their inferiors. Religion was central to the Hittite’s culture and they considered their devotion to it to be one of their primary strengths. The upkeep of Hittite religious institutions and their functionaries was a primary obligation of the commander of the Hittite border guards. A document containing instructions for that commander explains these responsibilities: â€Å"In the town through which the commander [passes]†¦ he shall attend to the necessary provisions for town-elders, priests, ‘anointed’ (and) mothers-of-god.† (par. 1) It was important to the Hittite king (also called the Sun) that all cities in the empire contain adequate sites for worship of the Hittite gods. This suggests that they believed paying tribute to the gods ensured them some sort of security or protection. In that same document it was stated, â€Å"The commander of the border guards shall make an inventory of the god’s utensils and send it before the Sun.† (par. 3) ‘Utensils’ probably refers to the possessions of the gods, perhaps including their temples, servants, and any commodities held in their name. A list of them was most likely held by the king so that what the Hittites had given to their gods was on record. The magnitude of religion in this civilization and the closeness of it to the military reveal that the favor of and protection from its gods gave its people a perceived power and authority that other civilizations lacked. Religion was also directly connected to imperial Hittite rule through the king. In a treaty between Mursilis, Sun of the Hittites, and Duppi-Tessub, king of Amurru, the preamble mentions that Mursilis was the â€Å"favorite of the Storm-god.

Tuesday, September 17, 2019

A Look at Russell Baker’s “Work in Corporate America”

Russell Baker shows his apparent disdain for the modern American workplace in his short essay â€Å"Work in Corporate America†. Obviously, the man is unhappy with how the U.S. economy has progressed. He pines for the days when a child could put his father’s profession into concrete, understandable terms.And, for some reason—which he does not enumerate—he is convinced that jobs which consist of utilizing cerebral skills one developed in college are â€Å"junk†. Baker disparages those who do â€Å"market research† or work in â€Å"public relations†, yet he never gives the reason why he despises these fields.The paper turns into nothing more than a litany against those who perform these cerebral based jobs.   Ã‚   It seems that he would prefer to see the American workforce slaving over a hot furnace making horseshoes or in textile factories making jeans rather than in business suits reclining in air-conditioned offices. In fact, the iro ny of this piece is that Baker is disgusted by a society where paper is the primary means of tangible work, but he, himself, is a writer, making a living in the same exact way that he mocks others for making a living.If his own child asked him what he did for a living, Baker could show him nothing more than his own piece of paper with words and corrections on it.Now, Baker’s point that America has moved away from specific hard and fast job descriptions and towards more ambiguous trades is 100 percent accurate. The fact that for an adult, and certainly a child, to imagine selling space or doing market is difficult to wrap your head around is definitely valid.Baker also performs an excellent job portraying the communications between those who work in corporate America. He shows that human interaction on the telephone—the so-called â€Å"meeting of the minds†Ã¢â‚¬â€is what drives the modern economy.Looking at Baker’s perspective and our current corporate ec onomy, the author’s work accurately portrays that system, as well. Those, who have trained their minds and developed a skill, use of numbers and the written word to perform their work. But, Baker fails to mention in this essay is that there are still laymen. But, they are fewer, and no one wishes to do backbreaking work when they can, instead, sit in an air-conditioned office and earn twice as much. Now, I would call that progress.

Monday, September 16, 2019

Corporate Responsibility and Marketing Strategies Essay

Apple corporation bases its success on â€Å"creating innovative, high quality products and services and on demonstrating integrity in every business interaction.† According to Apple, four main principles contribute to integrity: honesty, respect, confidentiality, and compliance. To more thoroughly detail these principles, Apple has drafted a code of business conduct that applies to all its operations, including operations overseas. Apple disappointed socially responsible investors. Apple has come under fire since around 2006 as details emerged surrounding the workplace environment at Apple’s Chinese suppliers. An article in The New York Times publicized unsatisfactory worker conditions, which included grueling 24-hour shifts, overcrowded dorms, exposure to toxic chemicals, and horrific explosions. Foxconn Technology Group operates many of the plants in question in Chengdu, China. When it comes to customers, Apple is said to be a bold innovator that leads the industry i nto new directions and forces others to follow. However, when it comes to the management of its supply chain and treatment of workers in the Chinese factories that make its products, Apple hides behind the constraints of prevailing industry practices. What is even more disconcerting is the fact that these practices are in violation of not only local and national laws, but also of Apple’s own voluntary self-imposed code of conduct. Most of Apple’s worker-related problems were focused on Apple’s manufacturing partner Foxconn and its subsidiaries. Apple’s China operations first caught international attention in June 2006 with a long story in Britain’s Mail on Sunday.1 This was followed by a series of similar stories in other leading international news media, and has continued to this day.2 Because of Foxconn’s secrecy, it is well-nigh impossible to develop an accurate assessment of the problems in the factories owned and operated by Foxconn and its various subsidiaries. However, a brief descr iption of extreme conditions prevailing in these factories and widely reported in the  media gave the readers some indication of the enormity of the problems that likely to existed in those plants. Apple has audited many of its suppliers and found violations of its Supplier Code of Conduct, but requesting its suppliers improve working conditions is not as powerful as changing suppliers to ones with more humane conditions. Part of the problem is that Apple has no legal liability for what happens in Chinese factories owned by separate manufacturers. Environmental organization Greenpeace had frequently campaigned against Apple, requesting elimination of non-recyclable hardware components, the removal of toxins from iPhone hardware, and a comprehensive take-back plan to prevent Apple products from ending up as waste. Greenpeace also began a protest in 2003 against Apple’s use of toxic PVC plastics and brominated flame retardants, or BFRs, in Apple’s products. Apple eliminated these chemicals in 2008, becoming the first laptop maker to do so (Corporate Responsibility Spotlight: Apple, September 14, 2012.) Workers assembling iPhones, iPads and other devices often labor in harsh conditions, according to employees inside China’s plants, worker advocates and documents published by companies themselves. Problems are as varied as onerous work environments and serious — sometimes deadly — safety problems. Under-age workers have helped build Apple’s products, and the company’s suppliers have improperly disposed of hazardous waste and falsified records, according to company reports and advocacy groups that, within China, are often considered reliable, independent monitors. The suppliers demonstrated disregard for workers health. In 2010, 137 workers at an Apple supplier in eastern China were injured after the workers were said to have been ordered to use a poisonous chemical to clean iPhone screens. In 2009 two explosions at iPad factories, including in Chengdu, killed four people and injured 77. Before those blasts, Apple had been alerted to hazardous conditions inside the Chengdu plant, according to a Chinese group that published that warning (Duhigg, Charles and Barboza, David. In China, Human Costs Are Built Into an iPad, (The NewYork Times) January 25, 2 010.) The publications outlining the ethics and social responsibility violations of Apple caused more consumers to actually start to wonder where and how Apple products are manufactured. Consumers have focused on Apple’s remarkable products rather than how they are produced. The New York Times story on iPad working conditions, for example, generated 1,770 reader comments. Many, if not most, blasted Apple  or the overall system of cheap labor. And an online petition prompted by the This American Life piece that called for Apple to protect Chinese workers had garnered roughly 166,000 signatures—and counting. I determined that Apple’s customers would be willing to pay more for its products if Apple had to increase selling prices in order to provide better wages and benefits for suppliers’ workers. Apple seems to make people crazy, described as a cult because it has such a vociferous following.† The Secrecy Strategy† (Moltz, John., Why Apple Drives People Crazy. Macworld. Feb2013, Vol. 30 Issue 2, p100-100. 1p). Stock-market and financial analysts are known to always have had a hard time understanding Apple because Apple does not sell commodity products or chase market share at the cost of everything else. Its modus operand i is: Enter a market, stake out the high end, and scoop up all the profit. As copycats such as Samsung flood the low end, Apple continued to hold the high end by evolving and differentiating products, while looking for new markets. One key approach used is to never telegraph punches; that way, no would know which market would be remade next. Hence Apple’s famous veil of secrecy, which further frustrated analysts. The bottom line was that the appeal of Apple’s products and its business strategies were said to be inscrutable, which made the company a Rorschach test. People saw what they wanted to see, and the idea that Apple’s fortunes are plummeting is more appealing to many than the idea that it might continue to ride high. The appeal of Apple’s products and its business strategies are believed to be both inscrutable. Apple joined the FLA in 2012 following intense public attention over allegations of widespread problems at Foxconn, China’s largest private employer. The FLA said both Apple and Foxconn â€Å"have agreed to ongoing assessments by FLA in order to ensure that labor practices meet FLA standards and remain in compliance for the long term.† Current and former Apple executives, moreover, say the company had made significant strides in improving factories in recent years. Apple has a supplier code of conduct that details standards on labor issues, safety protections and other topics. The company has mounted a vigorous auditing campaign, and when abuses are discovered, Apple says, corrections are demanded. And Apple’s annual supplier responsibility reports, in many cases, are the first to report abuses. This month, for the first time, the company released a list identifying many of its suppliers. Apple has continued to be aggressive in  calling out suppliers who don’t meet up to its code of conduct. In January, Apple said it had fired Pingzhou Electronics – after it was found to be hiring underage workers. Apple’s Supplier Code of Conduct sets the minimum age for workers at 15. (Apple’s Labor Practices In China Scrutinized After Foxconn, Pegatron Reviews. Forbes.com. 12/12/2013, p2-2. 1 p. 1 Chart). What made Steve different from other marketers, is that he understood that his job as a marketer was not to focus on making money or sales, and, unlike other marketers, Steve’s marketing skills was seem in the way he presented his products: Here are some of the quotes that reflect Steve’s focus in business: If it could save a person’s life, could you find a way to save ten seconds off the boot time? You‘ve got to start with the customer experience and work back toward—not the other way around. Being the richest man in the cemetery doesn’t matter to me. Going to bed at night saying that they had done something wonderful is what mattered to Steve. Steve made the marketing process simple; if he gave people what they want, educated them on why they needed it, showed them how it will improve their lives, and why no other competitor’s products could compete with the convenience and ease of use of yours, customers would be willing to spend. References Apple’s Labor Practices In China scrutinized after Foxconn, pegatron reviews. Forbes.com. 12/12/2013, p2-2. 1p. 1 Chart. Apple’s Marketing Strategy – Sell On Value, Not Price. Retrieved from http://www.chrisnosal.com/apples-marketing-strategy-sell-products-on-value-not-price/ (Duhigg, Charles and Barboza, David.( January 25, 2010). In China, human costs are built into an iPad, (The NewYork Times). Frauenheim, Ed. February 6, 2012. Bad Apple: Could the era of exploitation outsourcing be near its end? Retrieved from http://www.workforce.com/blogs/2-work-in-progress/post/bad-apple-could-the-era-of-exploitation-outsourcing-be-near-its-end) Kannel, Charlie, The Motley Fool (September 14, 2012) Corporate responsibility spotlight: Apple. (Daily Finance). Ira Kalb, Marshall School of Business, USC . (September 13, 2013) Apple’s ‘Cheap iPhone’ might not be that affordable, but it does protect the brand (Business Insider). Retrieved from

Sunday, September 15, 2019

Analysis of “A letter to my mother” by Chenjerai Hove

The purpose of this text, which is a letter from a traveller home to his mother, is to inform her of his experiences on his travels, and is thought and feelings on this. The tone of the letter is largely one of nostalgia and suggestions of homesickness which can be seen in the many contrasting ways he portrays the way of life from his home in Africa to his new home in Norway. However the writer acknowledges that he has learned that travelling is a way to broaden one’s horizons and expand one’s mind so, but looks forward to the day he can return to his roots and share his experiences with his family. The tone of nostalgia is prevalent throughout this text, it even begins with the word ‘Remember’ which suggests that it is going to be a very reflective and personal piece. This is repeated again with reference to ‘memories’ of the way of life the writer has left behind, and the fondness with which he looks back on it. The fond recollections of home which are described in detail such as the way they view the weather, particularly the rain as something which is to be ‘celebrated’ because it ‘gives life to people, plants and animals’. This stands in stark contrast to the way in which Norwegian regard this type of weather. ‘Have not stopped cursing the weather’ shows that they see it as the opposite of the blessing that those who live in Africa see it as. This is again emphasized when the writer treats the type of people who would have cursed the rain in his home as unnatural and evil. These people are a ‘witch who wishes that life should not be brought’, this shows how the local attitudes to the rain could not be more in opposition. This all works to show the writer’s nostalgic view of his home culture and longing to be there, with people he shares the same values with. The writer goes on to talk about the weather conditions of Norway that are new to him and how his inexperience of the ice and snow could possibly lead to real, physical harm. ‘A step on the ice is a potential disaster’, this shows that he could easily fall and cause harm to himself in this new and strange environment, which instantly contrasts with the experienced and graceful Norwegians who have been living in these conditions all their lives. ‘they float on it like Arabs’. The writer also goes on to show how the Norwegian use of the ice for entertainment or sporting purposes is completely alien and almost baffling to him. ‘they even run races and win competitions’ His astonishment is again emphasized by the use of a rhetorical question-‘can you imagine?’, this shows that using something which would be strange and dangerous for him in a competitive manner is bewildering and that he doesn’t quite feel like he fits in yet and that he is so far removed from the culture as to always be an outsider. Further contrasts are shown between the geographical differences of Norway and Africa are introduced by the phrase ‘by the way’ which suggests the writer’s excitement to tell his mother about a novel experience. ‘I forget you have never seen the sea’ this could be taken to be typical of all people of his place of origin, this would be something that they could consider exciting and opening up new ideas to them. This contrasts with the way Norwegian settlements re set out, they are all in coastal areas and gain much of their sustenance from the sea, ‘Norwegians are people of the sea’ and ‘it brings everything they want’, this suggests that while the sea and all it’s bounty are enough to make the local Norwegians happy and content, it does not seem to do so for the author, further alienating him from those round him. This is further emphasized by the Norwegian folk wisdom ‘if you don’t eat fish, like me, you are supposed to be miserable’ . The Norwegians would argue that he is unhappy because he does not eat fish, however the source of his unhappiness is more likely to be his homesickness and desire to be with those he misses. The writer becomes more upbeat towards the end, and begins to describe his thoughts as he looks towards the time when he can return home and share with his mother his experiences and all that he has learned. The use of the verb phrase ‘I hope’ shows that he is looking to that time in the future not with sadness but expectation, that it is something to look forward to. The repetition of the lexical item ‘Maybe’ gives the impression that the writer is uncertain but hopeful, and that he would like nothing more than to be able to return one day. The writer goes on to list the things that he one day hopes to return to do, ‘gaze at the beauty of that African moon’ this suggests that the African moon is unique and perhaps has some magical quality. This suggests that the writer would love to be able to be at home doing these things, but must continue his journey. The writer seems to acknowledge that it may be many years before he is able to return, ‘I may be older, but I will not have given up the idea of being young’ , this suggests that while the writer knows he will be away for years, he will never forget about his homeland and the people he left behind, and will one day return. The use of the lexical item ‘idea’ suggests that the writer considers that it doesn’t matter what age he has reached, as long as he does not feel old in himself then he will not be too old to continue his journey and to continue gaining knowledge. The writer finishes on a positive note, telling his mother how he is determined to carry on his quest to learn and for life experience ‘many streams to the river of knowledge’. This metaphor is describing knowledge as a river, which is constantly flowing, changing and heading somewhere new, just like he was when he left for Norway. The ‘stream’ which flows to the rivers is his path to this knowledge, one that he feels he must continue to travel. The writer is more forceful here than before, having often used the lexical item ‘maybe’ to which showed uncertainty but hopefulness, he now uses the verb phrase ‘ I know’ , this shows his mind has been made up that he shall not give in and come home yet just because he is unhappy. The noun phrase ‘other lads’ refers to his new home in Norway, which could be considered his classroom or learning grounds for his life lessons, but also suggests it could be anywhere in the world due to lands being plural, and that he may move on to somewhere new one day. All in all the writer uses various techniques to show the contrasts of his homeland to his new home, his homesickness and his desire to soldier on, to continue to gain new knowledge and life skills and experience.

Saturday, September 14, 2019

Psychological Testing Essay

The Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children measures simultaneous and sequential processing skills as well as subscales that measure academic achievement. The age range this test investigates is ages 2-12 years. There are ten mental processing subtests as well as six achievement subtests. Only three of the subtests are administered to all ages groups, making the sub-testing age-specific. The older the child in question, the longer the tests will take. The sequential processing scale measures short term memory and problem solving is organized around sequences. The simultaneous scale measures several problems that need to be solved at the same time. Achievement scales measure applied skills of the individual. b) Intelligence in children of preschool age is very unstable whereas their intelligence begins to stabilize as they reach school age. The assessment tools for infants are different to school-going children in the sense that they measure development rather than academic foundations. These tests measure how quickly the child is developing in terms of motor skills, linguistic development, adaptive behavior and social interaction. It has to be given that school-aged children have a higher vocabulary and language skill that can be better tested than the infant who is still using monosyllabic noises rather than words. Motor skills also develop more rapidly as well as reasoning skills. c) Mental age does not refer to the actual age of the person in question. A person with a mental age of 5 years may actually only be 4 years chronologically and vice versa. Due to this anomaly, data derived from IQ testing does not follow a bell-curve on data sheets. The deviation IQ is implemented to smooth out inconsistencies. Instead of actual scores, the person is allocated a percentile score so that it can be placed more realistically on a normal curve chart. Mental age does not necessarily increase over time in the same way that chronological age does and this age difference gradually decreases around adolescence. For these reasons a deviation IQ is used as opposed to actual raw scores. d) Originally named the Binet-Simon test, the Testing underwent several revisions over time with the most significant change being that it included the first Intelligence Quotient after 1916 when it became the Stanford-Binet test. The Binet-Simon test was initially used to determine the intelligence of retarded children, came to the conclusion that rather than portraying a chronological age, the children displayed a mental age instead. The 1986 version of the test include a wider perimeter sample group in order to decrease inequities that occurred in race and gender previously. It had been engineered for children alone but in 2003 was amended to accommodate adults as well. Design changes were made also to accommodate and measure behavior at age levels. e) Fluid and crystallized intelligence both form part of general intelligence. Fluid intelligence relates to reasoning and problem solving and is largely thought of as being independent of learning or experience. It is therefore an inherent or instinctual intelligence. Crystallized intelligence on the other hand refers to the intelligence that you gain from experience and what you have learnt in life. This intelligence is something that increases with age due to experiences and the assimilation of knowledge through what we have learned. Fluid intelligence therefore decreases with age and peaks during adolescence while crystallized intelligence will continue to grow. f) The general intelligence factor (g-factor) is meant to be a measurement of the persons overall intelligence. The two-factor theory was initiated by Spearman who derived a g-factor from two functions: a generalized ability and a specific ability. Therefore according to Spearman a person’s intelligence could be determined by a general intelligence as well as a specific intelligence (s-factor). Multi-factor intelligence theories implement the individual ability to be intelligent in various fields. Thurstone found that there were multiple areas in which a person could display intelligence and derived 7 factors that he called primary abilities: word fluency, verbal comprehension, spatial concept, numerical facilitation, memory by association, reasoning and perceptual speed. g) Individual tests require one-one-one consultation and measure verbal and non-verbal abilities. The Stanford-Binet and the Wechsler tests both require this environment. Group tests are most often administered to large groups and do no require one-on-one consultation. These tests are most often aptitude tests or cognitive abilities. Scoring in these terms is most often more objective than in individual tests and also simplify the role of the coordinator. Group testing is not culture-specific as opposed to individual testing which can be more culturally loaded and also more subjective. It is not as easy to establish a relationship with the person in a group testing environment as it is when the person is tested individually. h) Army alpha and beta tests were prototypes initially used in group testing to place soldiers during the First World War. Alpha groups were those who were proficient in the English language. Those who were not initially considered alpha groups were those who were placed in beta groups who were intelligent but not native English speakers. This hypothesis was that people’s intelligence was inherited. This method was first used to identify where in the army the person was likely to be placed, given their responses to the tests and the results. The beta test decreased its use of verbal knowledge presumably because they are non-English and it used mainly pictographic references. i) Aptitude and achievement tests are both standardized. Aptitude testing assesses the ability of the person to learn in certain areas. These tests are developed in order to determine which field of proficiency the person is most likely to excel in. These also measure numerical and literal ability as well as mechanical and abstract reasoning. Achievement tests on the other hand measure how well a person has achieved a skill. It is mostly used to ascertain academic levels and therefore is useful in determining whether a person is inherently able to learn something or not. An aptitude test will be able to validate that a person is most likely to achieve highly in a certain area and not as highly in others. j) The Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children is an individual test that does not require reading or writing. It measures verbal intelligence and response times which can be useful in the diagnosis of Attention Deficits or other such disorders/abnormal patterns. This form of testing is significant in that it supplies the coordinator with information as to how fast the child can assimilate and react to questions. It also ascertains the quality and efficiency of vocabulary as well as word processing. The test is significant also in that t determines the respondent’s concentration levels and possible problems in their attention span. This is useful in that answers require verbal reactions. k) Physical disability does not necessarily mean that there will be discrepancies in the IQ of the person. Testing a person who is deaf for instance, requires a different approach to testing as well as a different means for the test. These individuals need a non-verbal based test and verbal ability is therefore a non-entity in their testing. A blind person on the other hand will not benefit from spatially based tests or units that require sight. The tests used to identify IQ would have to be verbally based and not pictorial. This considered, a speech impaired individual will also not have the same verbal component as someone who is able to speak. However, this does not mean that a mute person is not able to understand verbal interjection. For this reason, the IQ test has to be tailored to the specific disability reflected by the individual. l) Certain cultures encourage some skills more than they do others. The culture fair test is non-verbal and does not therefore test linguistic understanding insomuch as if the person tested is not an English speaker, they cannot be expected to understand English word and sentence structure. The culture fair test therefore measures analytical and reasoning ability and makes use of abstract and unusual visual spatial pictographs. From this the spatial and pictorial representations are believed to be universal to all cultures and thus understood well from one culture to the next. It was initially meant to reduce cultural or ethnic bias that can be produced when a test is designed to be effect for a certain culture. It is also independent of educational foundations and therefore measures inherent skill rather than acquired skills. 2 a) Personality testing identifies certain traits inherently part of an individuals psychological make-up. These tests basically help you determine what personality attributes you have and therefore help to identify what career types may be more pertinent to whom. Aspects of the personality often denote what particular attributes the personality has and thus what lifestyle s better suited to whom. Jung and Myers-Briggs typology identify different personality types that are said to help the individual determine their best career path. The ability test measures a person’s ability to learn new skills and also their potential in certain fields. Ability tests also seek to ascertain what the person has learnt or assimilated in terms of whatever they are studying, for example, school tests. b) Personality traits are characteristics of the individual and certain personality qualities that are inherent to the person. There are theories that propose that all traits are present in all people but to varying degrees (lesser or more). Idiographic personality trait view maintains that each person has a unique psychological structure that is not shared by anyone else. For this reason, it is impossible to compare any two people. The nomothetic view however, sees people as unique in their combination of traits. This means that while they do share personality traits to various degrees this can be compared by degrees of each trait in comparable people. c) Items are chosen depending on the specific group that is being studied. For example, screening of normal behavior in police officer applicants will be given items that pertain to the criminal justice system. The group is split into two: one group is what the coordinator would think of as displaying abnormal reactions/behavior and the other would be normal. Items are distributed equally in both groups and reactions towards the stimuli are recorded. The empirical criterion key does not assume that respondents are able to observe their own behavior but rather sees the objects or items as stimuli that require a response. Those they believe to be normal are used as a scale by which abnormal behavior can be compared. d) Forced-choice format gives a more well-rounded result then standard testing. The forced choice format basically allows the respondent one of two statements that they most likely agree with. The advantage of this is that it not only gives an accurate representation of reality, but it prevents the choice from becoming monotonous. It is easier to score these kinds of questions than if the respondent was asked multiple choice questions. As a design this format prevents the respondent from being consciously manipulated and therefore makes sure that the answers are truthful. This form of questionnaire is also shorter, preventing the individual from becoming tired and losing focus on the questions that are being asked. This prevents answers from becoming distorted. e) Response sets or response style refers to the person’s propensity to answer the same response for all or most of the questions. For instance, if the person responded ‘yes’ to the above question and then ‘yes’ again, regardless of the nature of the question. This is usually counterbalanced in tests because there are times when the person is biased towards a certain question based on its contents. Counterbalancing this response requires the same question to be asked in a different way and later in the questionnaire. This situation of response bias is also termed ‘acquiescence’ as the person performs this unconsciously or with lack of interest in the nature of the questions. f) Factor analysis is used to describe variables in a research situation. For instance, we have a research questionnaire that we now have to translate into data specific terms. We have the variables that were studied and the scores for each variable. In psychometric intelligence testing we could have any number of variables that determine the overall factor. An example of this would be that while we are aware that there are multiple factors within the intelligence study, all these factors contribute to the g-factor or general intelligence factor. In this case ‘g’ is the only factor that is common in all persons. What this analysis does is ascertain what particular factors which people are most affiliated with. Basically we could determine which factor is specific to which person. g) Objective self reporting methods of personality assessment is based on standardized questionnaires with limited responses available as well as a fixed scoring system. It is based on nomothetic principles and is therefore less ambiguous then the progressive methods. Progressive personality assessment techniques use intuitive responses and the intuitive scoring is also use. This personality assessment is based on idiographic principles which make it entirely different to the objective method. The problem with progressive techniques is that there is no fixed scoring system, however the problem with the objective method is that it does not leave room for intuitive or interpretive responses which are natural human conditions. h) Word association tests require the coordinator to present the group or person with a word. The person responds to this with the first word that comes to mind. This is a free association and therefore does not give the person the chance to think about their answer. A table measures the test word, the response time and the response. Responses to the words can be either the opposite in meaning; an association with the word (green-yellow); or even a definitive answer. The basis of this test is that it provides a pattern of how the individual sees words and how they associate with things. The association of about 100 words will give the coordinator a pattern of response that can be determined as normal, abnormal or as an anomaly. Most people will have a set pattern of responses. i) The interaction between a need and a press is called a thema. There is a need that is ensued by a press. To simplify this, Murray identified 28 needs and forces that press them into fruition. This makes the relationship interactive and determined by this interaction is the thema. The thema therefore can be linked to other units of these interactions to form serial thema. The greatest portion of the persons thema is dependent on the amount of press and needs that are present in that specific thema. This theory is used to determine personality types that are identified by specific needs and forces of press. Murray conducted this typology on Adolf Hitler in order to ascertain the needs and forces that culminated in his erratic behavior. j) Interest inventories conduct in-depth investigation into a person’s likes and dislikes and this helps to determine what type of career path is best suited to the individual. Clearly you should not study or undertake careers in which you would have to partake in activities you intensely dislike. Neither would it be advisable to become involved in vocations that you are indifferent to. The key would be to become involved in a career that contains more of your inventories ‘likes’ than ‘dislikes’. These interest inventories help you to discover what it is exactly that you like or dislike. This particular form of inventory is highly related to personality in the sense that certain personalities are more likely to enjoy certain key activities. An example of this would be an artist or writer enjoying solitude in a way that an actor might not. 3 b) Test name: Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale. Test uses: The Stanford Binet was initially indicated for the correct placement of children in educational settings. It is now one of the most widely used intelligence tests. It is useful for determining cognitive skills and intelligence in children and adults. Population test was designed for: As already stated, it was designed for children in educational settings in order to ensure that they were placed in the right class environment. Administration of test: The time it takes to administer this test depends on the age of the respondent and how many subtests are administered. It may take from 45-90 minutes standard but may take longer depending on the conditions at the time and the variables concerned. The respondent is timed at each subtest and is determined by estimated entry level. Timing is approximately 5 minutes per test. Depending on the age, the articles measured include: fluid reasoning, knowledge, quantitative reasoning, visual-spatial processing and working memory. Characteristics of normative samples: The Stanford Binet normative sample reflect the 2000 U. S census and bias reviews are conducted on race, ethnicity, gender, religion and socio-economic status. Because it is a standardized test, normative or mean scores are derived per age group and the representative sample is matched to the individual standing. It was standardized on a national representative sample of 5 000 subjects. Reliability information: Reliability in this test is considered high. The internal median consistency score was . 97. Subtest reliabilities differ from age-group to age-group. Reliability coefficients ranged from . 91 to . 98, with coefficients for the five factor indices ranging from . 90 to . 92. Subtest coefficients ranged from . 84 to . 89. Validity information: correlations in the validity were considered high with an approximate value of . 90 compared to earlier Stanford Binet editions and high compared to other tests. Strengths of the test: This test can assist in the diagnosis of learning disabilities as well as determine the level of competency for young children compared to a normative structure. It can be used to determine developmental stages and knowledge and can be used in all age-groups from pre-school to adults. Weaknesses of the test: Due to the lack of co-operation sometimes shown in very young preschoolers the test results may not be indicative of true ability because of their lack of interest in partaking in the study. Different age-groups are administered different subtests which may also be considered a criticism in terms of its universal application.